Source: in-cyprus.philenews.com
In recent years, terrorism has undergone a profound transformation. From a primarily physical and organised form of violence, it has evolved into a hybrid phenomenon that extends simultaneously across the real and digital worlds. Cyberspace has become a strategic arena of activity, where extremist organisations recruit new members, spread propaganda, raise resources and organise networks of supporters on a global scale.
In this new environment, so-called “digital jihad” is becoming increasingly significant, Eleni I. Kapsokoli said in her interview with Phileleftheros. Kapsokoli is a lecturer in the Department of International and European Studies at Panteion University and the author of the book Digital Jihad: The strategic use of cyberspace by Al Qaeda and ISIS (Papazisis Publishers). She explained that jihadist organisations systematically use social media, communication apps, cryptocurrencies and even emerging artificial intelligence technologies to strengthen their presence and influence online. Technology now acts as a force multiplier, allowing such organisations to maintain an international reach even when they are under military pressure in the physical arena.
The latest developments in the Middle East have put European authorities on alert over possible terrorist attacks, a rise in cyberattacks and an increase in disinformation campaigns, particularly online, because of the current conflict in the region. “The possibility cannot be ruled out that the conflict may be instrumentalised for propaganda, recruitment or even operational purposes, in both the physical and digital environment,” Eleni I. Kapsokoli said, while stressing that European countries have in recent years significantly strengthened their counterterrorism and cybersecurity capabilities.
– Are you concerned about the possibility of an increase in terrorist attacks or cyberattacks in Europe following the start of the war involving the United States, Israel and Iran?
– The military confrontation between Israel and the United States on the one hand and Iran on the other is likely to have multiple direct implications for security. There are, however, also more indirect effects, particularly in the medium term, linked to terrorism and radicalisation. Historically, it has been observed that military interventions and confrontations are often followed by further escalation and mobilisation among supporters of extremist organisations, as happened with Al Qaeda and ISIS. In this context, the possibility cannot be ruled out that the conflict may be instrumentalised for propaganda, recruitment or even operational purposes, in both the physical and digital environment. This is particularly true in cyberspace, where the cost of action is lower and the scope for activity is broader, including cyberattacks, influence operations and disinformation campaigns. Even so, it is worth noting that in recent years European countries have significantly strengthened their capabilities in both counterterrorism and cybersecurity. Therefore, while geopolitical crises often create an increasingly unstable security environment, the development of the threat is not predetermined and depends on factors such as the duration of the conflict, the involvement of regional actors and the effectiveness of prevention and response mechanisms.
– How has the role of cyberspace in modern terrorism changed compared with 10 or 20 years ago?
– The relationship between terrorism and technology is longstanding and evolves in parallel with new technological innovations. Over the past two decades, however, the role of cyberspace has changed qualitatively: from being a supporting tool for propaganda and communication, it has become a critical operational and strategic arena of action. After the attacks of September 11, 2001, and the subsequent intensification of international counterterrorism efforts, organisations such as Al Qaeda and ISIS found themselves facing increased military pressure, the loss of territorial control and reduced access to physical safe havens. In this environment, information and communication technologies made it possible to preserve the organisations’ cohesion, ideological influence and international presence even as they were undergoing physical fragmentation. Today, cyberspace is not merely a means of disseminating narratives, but a space for the exercise of power, the construction of identity and the management of supporter networks on a global scale.
– Can you tell us more about how terrorist organisations use cyberspace?
– Cyberspace supports a wide range of activities. Terrorist organisations use it for the recruitment and indoctrination of new members, ideological consolidation and the building of digital communities, the provision of operational training and guidance, the raising of financial resources and the funding of activities, the coordination of attacks, the collection of intelligence and the carrying out of cyberattacks. Digital communities create the impression of broad and continuous support, reinforcing the dynamics of radicalisation and limiting exposure to counter-narratives through the creation of echo chambers. At the same time, relative anonymity, weak regulatory oversight and the fragmented nature of global digital governance facilitate secure communications, financial transactions, including the use of cryptocurrencies, and access to illegal services on the dark web. As a result, a hybrid model of action has emerged, a new generation of terrorists with a dual operational presence in both the physical and digital environment. Technology no longer functions merely as an auxiliary tool, but as a force multiplier that enhances the resilience, reach and operational effectiveness of terrorist organisations.
– Does this apply to every kind of extremism, regardless of ideological origin or organisational structure, or does it concern a specific type?
– The strategic use of cyberspace is not confined to one specific ideological category. On the contrary, it is a phenomenon that affects a wide spectrum of extremist groups and individuals, from those with political motives to those driven by religion. Cyberspace acts as a force multiplier regardless of ideology because it offers a functional environment in which different ideologies can develop in parallel. The differences lie mainly in the degree of central control over digital presence, the level of expertise and capability among supporters, the relationship between organised structures and independent supporters, and strategic targeting, namely mass propaganda versus closed ideological communities. By way of example, organisations with international ambitions invest systematically in coherent communication strategies and multilingual content production, while more decentralised networks more often rely on loosely connected digital communities and self-radicalising individuals. Therefore, the use of cyberspace is horizontal in terms of its ideological diffusion, but each extremist current integrates it according to its own organisational structure, strategic objectives and technological capacity.
– In your book you refer to “digital jihad”. What exactly does that term mean?
– The term “digital jihad” refers to the analytical model I developed for the systematic study of the strategic use of cyberspace by the jihadist organisations Al Qaeda and ISIS, capturing a multi-layered phenomenon. The model is built around seven main axes: radicalisation, recruitment, strategic communication and propaganda, operational training, financing, the role of women, cybersecurity and hacking activities. These axes highlight the formation of a coherent and structured digital ecosystem of action, extending from social media and communication apps to cryptocurrencies, artificial intelligence technologies and virtual environments. In this analytical framework, the term “jihad” captures the continuous, systematic and ideologically charged effort to maintain and expand these organisations’ presence in the digital space, both through their formal organisational structure and through independent supporters.
– Your book focuses on Islamist terrorism. How and why did organisations such as Al Qaeda and ISIS manage to make systematic and strategic use of cyberspace?
– Organisations such as Al Qaeda and ISIS managed to use cyberspace strategically because they understood early on that digital technology could offset their structural disadvantages, namely the loss of territory and the pressure exerted by international counterterrorism operations. Al Qaeda was among the first organisations to grasp the strategic importance and potential of cyberspace for spreading its ideology and strengthening its decentralised activity, contributing to the transition from a hierarchical model to small autonomous cells. ISIS demonstrated a higher level of technological sophistication and took advantage of the subsequent maturation of the information ecosystem to develop a multilingual, visually refined and advanced communication strategy aimed at creating a “virtual caliphate” that transcended geographical borders. Their success is due to factors such as the low cost and widespread popularity of the internet, the ability to bypass traditional media and gain direct access to a global audience, as well as the combination of central guidance and decentralised reproduction of content, which strengthened the resilience of the message.
– Is there a way to limit “digital jihad” in cyberspace? What should governments and law enforcement authorities do?
– Limiting “digital jihad” is possible, but not in terms of total elimination. The main challenge for state authorities lies in the speed, adaptability and resilience of digital extremist networks. In a digitised and interconnected society, extremist narratives spread instantly to multiple audiences, communications are protected by encryption, communities move rapidly across platforms and digital traces are often concealed or fragmented. In addition, the rise of independent actors who draw ideological inspiration from the digital ecosystem without direct organisational guidance makes prevention even more complex. At the European level, the European Union has adopted a comprehensive approach combining regulatory tools for the rapid removal of extremist content, stronger cross-border police and judicial cooperation, the adoption of prevention and de-radicalisation programmes, and cooperation with the private sector and civil society. The effectiveness of these measures depends to a large extent on systematic cooperation with technology companies and on the development of mechanisms for the early detection of dangerous content. At the same time, investment is needed in digital literacy and in strengthening social resilience in order to reduce susceptibility to extremist narratives.
They use every means available for recruitment
– How does digital jihad recruit new members through cyberspace? By what arguments or methods does it persuade them to join and adopt its extremist ideology?
– Radicalisation and recruitment in cyberspace do not constitute an instantaneous event, but a gradual process of escalating involvement. “Digital jihad” is based on a multi-layered outreach system that combines public narratives, semi-closed digital communities and private communication channels. Practices such as algorithmic amplification of content, micro-targeting, the use of video games and personalised propaganda through AI technologies widen the targeted dissemination of extremist narratives. At an early stage, an attractive ideological narrative is promoted that responds to issues of identity, injustice, marginalisation or geopolitical grievance. Violence is not initially presented as the central element; it is gradually incorporated into a framework of moral legitimisation. Communication then becomes personalised. Through closed groups and direct interaction with like-minded individuals, the sense of belonging, guidance and personal involvement is reinforced. The shift from simple exposure to active support is facilitated by small acts of commitment, such as reproducing or translating content, or even providing technical assistance, which function as a gradual escalation of participation.
– Are there specific age groups or social groups that are targeted more heavily?
– Available European data, including from Europol, show growing concern about the involvement of minors and very young adults in terrorism or violent extremism cases. In addition, a lowering of the age threshold for involvement in terrorist acts has been observed. Most suspects arrested in 2024 were minors or young adults, with the youngest being 12 years old. This trend is often linked to processes of self-radicalisation in digital environments that encourage and normalise violence. Younger age groups appear to be more exposed, not because they are inherently a “vulnerable” group, but because of their intense digital presence, their search for identity and their familiarity with online communities. Al Qaeda and ISIS developed an online subculture known as “Jihadi Cool”, which used elements of music, video games and digital culture to present militant jihad as a modern, attractive and socially acceptable way of life. At the same time, targeting is not limited to one social or ethnic category. It includes members of the diaspora, local populations in conflict zones, and also individuals without a direct cultural or religious connection, who are mobilised mainly by ideological or political narratives.
– How decisive is the role of social media in the radicalisation of young people?
– Social media are not in themselves a cause of radicalisation. They do, however, function as powerful accelerators and multipliers. Radicalisation has to a large extent become embedded in the digital ecosystem, where access to ideological content is immediate, continuous and often unmediated. In the case of jihadist organisations, the information ecosystem was used to bypass traditional religious authorities and institutional barriers. This made it possible to shape simplified and instrumental narratives without any substantial counterargument, thereby facilitating the legitimisation of violence. Their propaganda invests heavily in emotional targeting, including narratives of victimhood, the heroisation of perpetrators, and the aestheticisation and visualisation of violence. The content does not aim solely at cognitive persuasion, but primarily at emotional manipulation and mobilisation. For younger age groups in particular, social media platforms are a space for identity formation and social recognition. When this search for identity encounters a coherent, digitally amplified and emotionally charged narrative, the risk of accelerated radicalisation increases significantly.
Experimentation with AI tools
– Could terrorist organisations make use of artificial intelligence and, if so, in what ways?
– Every emerging technology is of interest to terrorists, especially when it offers low cost, wide availability and operational added value. AI is a characteristic example, as it is evolving rapidly and affecting fields ranging from the economy and marketing to information operations. According to Europol reports, extremist networks, including jihadist organisations, have already shown interest in, or engaged in limited experimentation with, AI tools. Potential uses include automated content generation and translation, personalised interaction through chatbots, the creation of synthetic deepfake audiovisual material, the analysis of online trends and digital data, and attempts to evade surveillance systems or facial recognition. Historically, the adoption of technologies by terrorist organisations has not been driven by ideological “purity”, but by operational pragmatism. When a tool serves strategic objectives, doctrinal objections often recede. It is important to stress that so far there is no evidence of systematic large-scale use of AI by terrorist organisations. However, the rapid spread of generative AI tools and the ease of access to them make their future use a real possibility.
